Pivotal Moments in History

As legend has it, a young prince, Alexander, once subdued a wild stallion others couldn't control. Impressed by the youngster's bravery, his father, King Philip of Macedonia, predicted that Alexander would need to find a kingdom big enough for his ambitions. And when Alexander became king, that's exactly what he did. Alexander and his well-trained armies first gained the support of the Greek city states. Then in the mid-300s B.C., he conquered Egypt and the Persian Empire. With his brilliant military tactics, Alexander took over lands including modern-day Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India. Although he lived only thirty-three years, Alexander and his armies spread Greek culture and customs to these conquered lands, joining Western and Eastern ideas to produce a new culture called Hellenism, which influenced the ancient world for centuries to come.

In the Middle Eastern nation of Iran, discontent simmered for decades. The Iranian people despised their leader, Reza Shah, who catered to foreign businesses while ruling Iran as a dictator. In 1979 discontent boiled up into all-out revolution. Led by the charismatic Ayatollah Khomeini, the Iranian people seized control and created a new government based on the Islamic religion. The Iranian Revolution quickly became a showdown between the ideas and values of Islam and those of the West-particularly the United States. The most dramatic event in this showdown occurred in late 1979, when Iranian students captured a group of U.S. Embassy staff, holding them hostage for more than a year. During the following decades, the revolution recast the face of the Middle East: it set in motion a movement of Islamic fundamentalism-a movement that has taken center stage in world events in the twenty-first century. The Iranian Revolution is an ongoing story. However the story ends, the revolution is surely one of world history's most pivotal moments.

Could a few fleas really change the world? In the early 1300s, the world was on the brink of change. New trade routes in Europe and Asia brought people in contact with different cultures and ideas, while war and rebellions threatened to disrupt the lives of millions. Most people lived in crowded cities or as serfs tied to the lands of their overlords. Conditions were filthy, as most people drank water from the same sources they used for washing and for human waste. In the cramped and rat-infested streets of medieval cities and villages, all it took were the bites of a few plague-infected fleas to start a pandemic that killed roughly half the population of Europe and Asia. The bubonic plague wiped out families, villages, even entire regions. Once the swollen, black buboes appeared on victims' bodies, there was no way to save them. People died within days. In the wake of such devastation, survivors had to reevaluate their social, scientific, and religious beliefs, laying the groundwork for our modern world. The Black Death outbreak is one of world history's pivotal moments.

What happens when a foreigner takes over the throne of a powerful country like England? In the case of William the Conqueror, the forced rule would have an impact that lasted centuries. William was already Duke of Normandy-part of modern-day France. In 1066, he-along with thousands of Norman soldiers-invaded England and defeated King Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Hastings. As a result of William's victory, England's ties to Scandinavia loosened and its political and cultural traditions became more tightly linked to France and the rest of mainland Europe. The Norman Conquest of England is one of world history's most pivotal moments.

Can one document really change the world? In June, 1215 King John of England met with a group of nobles in a meadow on the banks of the Thames River. There, John affixed his royal seal to a document designed to bring about peace between the king and a group of rebellious nobles. This attempt failed miserably, and the two parties were soon at war again. Yet the ideas laid out in the document-which would later be called Magna Carta-lived on, and would become the foundation for many of the freedoms people enjoy in modern times. They include the right to a fair trial and the requirement that the punishment fit the crime. The signing of the Magna Carta is truly one of history's most pivotal moments.

How did the loss of one city change the history of Europe? In the Middle Ages, Constantinople's perfect geographic location-positioned along a land trade route between Europe and Asia as well as on a strategic seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean- made the city extremely desirous, and as a result, prone to attack. Under the control of the Roman and Byzantine Empires, Constantinople became known as "the Eye of the World," a center of government, trade, art, religion, and learning, and was even more desirous. Rulers built three sets of walls to protect Constantinople from attacks by Asiatic tribes. But the city's fall to the Turkish Ottomans in 1453 marked the official end of the Byzantine Empire-and the end of the Middle Ages. Learn how the fall of Constantinople became one of history's most pivotal moments.

Can the demise of a government 1,500 years ago have repercussions felt around the globe centuries later? If that government is the powerful Roman Empire, it can. From first century B.C. through fifth century A.D., the Romans ruled over an empire that stretched across much of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Then in 476, a leader from a Germanic group called the Goths overthrew the Roman Emperor. To this day, questions still exist about how such a powerful empire could have been destroyed. Roman culture, language, and technology had great influence on all areas under the empire's control. After the fall, Europe entered the early Middle Ages, a period of fragmentation characterized by a decline in trade, learning, and artistic achievement. The rise-and fall-of the Roman Empire are one of world history's most pivotal moments.

Can one book really change the world? A handwritten manuscript by Marco Polo in 1288 did. Polo, son of a wealthy Italian merchant, wrote about his incredible experiences traveling to China with his father and uncle on a trade expedition, and also about his adventures as an envoy of Kublai Khan, the ruler of most of China. Polo's book became a bestseller in Europe in the fourteenth century. It was copied over and over by hand, translated into fourteen languages, and became one of the first books to be printed after the invention of moveable type. The tales inspired others-including Christopher Columbus in the fifteenth century-to seek new sea routes for trade. Polo's adventures-and manuscript-are one of world history's most pivotal moments.

Can the conquest of one city change the world? In 1519, two powerful empires - Spain and Mexica (Aztec) - were hungry for expansion in central Mexico. Led by emperor Motecuzoma II, the Mexica people had subdued their native enemies and now controlled a sprawling territory with the great city of Tenochtitlán at the center. Then the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés led an attack on the Mexica empire. Although the Spaniards had horses and guns, both unknown in the Americas, the Mexica outnumbered them five hundred to one. The Spaniards had no chance of success without the help of native allies unhappy with Mexica rule. What followed was a desperate war that lasted two years, cost thousands of lives, and left Tenochtitlán in ruins. In 1521 Cortés declared Mexico a colony of New Spain. In so doing, he laid the groundwork for the expansion of European power throughout the Americas and changed the world forever. The Spanish conquest of Mexico is one of world history's pivotal moments.

Can one man really change the world? If that man is Genghis Khan, the answer is yes. Born around 1161, Temujin, as he was named, grew up in humble surroundings. As a teenager, he fled from enemy raiders, but he became a fearless-and feared-man who commanded an army of thousands and an empire of millions. In fact, by the mid-1200's Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire included much of the known world. Though he was responsible for the deaths of millions, he also showed tolerance for religious and cultural differences among the many people he conquered, and he brought stability and unification to a vast area where it had never before existed. Even today, the name Genghis Khan continues to instill fear in some and admiration in others. His election as Great Khan in approximately 1190 is surely one of history's most pivotal moments.

Can one man's religious experience change the whole world? In the A.D. 600s, in the Arabian city of Mecca, a merchant named Muhammad began to receive and share messages from God. Muhammad attracted many followers. Eventually the revelations formed the basis for a new religion, Islam. By the time of Muhammad's death, the Islamic religion had spread across the Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad's successors continued to bring Islam to surrounding lands. Often, they used peaceful means to win converts. Other times, they imposed the religion through forceful conquests. Within one hundred years of Muhammad's death, Arab Muslim armies had achieved stunning victories over two major empires, the Persians and the Byzantines. By the mid-700s, Islam was established from India to North Africa and Spain. Converts adopted the Arabic language, studied Arab poets and scholars, and built grand mosques for worship. Today more than one billion people worldwide practice Islam. The Arab conquests of the Middle East, which introduced a new world religion across geography and cultures, is one of world history's pivotal moments.

Can one invention really change the world? Before the mid-fifteenth century, books were printed by hand, making them rare and expensive. Reading and learning remained a privilege of the wealthy-until Johannes Gutenberg developed a machine called the printing press. Gutenberg, a German metalworker, began in the 1440's by making movable type-small metal letters that were arranged to form words and sentences, replacing handwritten letters. Movable type fit into frames on the printing press, and the press then produced many copies of the same page. As movable type and the printing press made book production much faster and less expensive, reading material of all kinds became available to a far wider audience. In Gutenberg's time, Europe was already on the brink of a new age-an explosion of world exploration, scientific discoveries, and political and religious changes. Gutenberg's printing press helped propel Europe into the modern era, and his legacy remains in the thousands of books and newspapers printed each year to keep us informed, entertained, and connected. Indeed, Gutenberg's development of the printing press became one of history's pivotal moments.

How did the end of the shoguns pave the way for modern Japan? Between the eighth and twelfth centuries, emperors ruled Japan. But powerful families gained the loyalty of the samurai - the emperors' warriors. In 1185 one local lord took control as shogun, leader of the samurai armies. For the next seven hundred years, the emperors were ceremonial figures, and the shoguns ruled Japan, banning interaction with the Western world. In the nineteenth century, Westerners demanded that Japan open to trade under the threat of invasion. Japan's shogunate realized it didn't have the military technology to fight them. When the shogun government made concessions to the Westerners, Japanese lords were outraged and returned their support to the emperor. The shogunate crumbled. In 1868 Emperor Meiji became ruler of Japan. He opened Japan to modern technology, and his military advisers created a global fighting force. The end of the shoguns, which led to the birth of modern Japan, was one of the world's pivotal moments.