Crime & Detection

Forensic science––the preparation of scientific evidence to be presented in court––is an increasingly valuable aspect of the investigation of crime. Although rare commentaries on the subject date back many centuries, it is only over the last 200 years that a systematic approach has been made––an approach that has accelerated rapidly in the past half-century. The detection and analysis of poisons was the first forensic technique to be developed in a truly scientific manner. This was followed by the realization that fingerprints were unique to every individual; then came the methodical study of firearms––the science of ballistics. The role of the medical examiner has become more important as understanding of the human body has increased and DNA analysis has succeeded in positively identifying a growing number of criminals. Forensic science is crucial for prosecuting crimes as well as protecting the innocent.

No nation in history has valued individual freedom more highly than the United States of America. Its people's right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" is enshrined in the Constitution. But even the most free, democratic society cannot allow its members to do entirely as they want. Every civilization has had its code of values, its system of laws––and each has defended that system by punishing wrongdoers. America has led the world in developing and upholding an even-handed, humane, and accountable criminal-justice system. Although an impressive achievement, there are few signs of an end to crime. Where have we gone wrong? Have we tried too hard to be lenient or have we, on the contrary, brutalized offenders with harsh and unfair punishments? As enthralling as it is illuminating, this book sets our current situation in its longer-term perspective, tracing the history of punishment from the earliest times to the present day.

Despite the tireless work of crime investigators, and the wealth of modern forensic techniques available to them, a disturbing number of crimes remain unsolved. This book explores some of the most famous open cases. Jimmy Hoffa, president of the Teamster's Union, disappeared in 1975. Although a number of suspects have been named and the influence of the Mob alleged, no one has ever been charged with his murder, and his body has never been found. The mystery of the "Black Dahlia" murder in 1947 provoked widespread speculation, and even the naming of the probable murderer, but he was found dead before the investigation could proceed. The "Zodiac" killer, who rocked San Francisco with the murder of more than 40 innocent people between 1966 and 1973, may still be at large. So why are these cases unsolved? Often it's because the culprit cannot be identified––or, if identified, cannot be traced––or because the evidence is insufficient to bring the case to trial. Chillingly, most of these cases involve murder or suspected murder.

America has long prided itself as a country where people of different races and cultures came together to form a new nationality. "Races didn't bother the Americans," U.S. poet Archibald MacLeish wrote. "They were the first self-constituted, self-created people in the history of the world." Unfortunately, the idea of the harmonious "melting pot" has not always matched the reality in this country. Race crimes, like other forms of criminal behavior, have always existed in the United States and other countries. America's greatest racial problem was handed down from the institution of slavery during a terrible period in our nation's history. Although African Americans have made giant strides in all fields, they and other minorities still encounter prejudice. This book explains the notion of race, the types of crimes that result from racial hatred, and the methods used to fight and eliminate this worldwide problem.

Criminal trials become famous for a variety of reasons. In the 1920s the Sacco and Vanzetti trial and execution prompted demonstrations and violent riots around the globe and divided opinion in the U.S. The kidnapping of the son of aviation hero Charles Lindbergh in the 1930s similarly caused outrage and horror and led to the passing of the Federal Kidnapping Act. As for the trials of Dr. Sam Sheppard in the 1950s, it was the weakness of his alibi in the murder of his pregnant wife that drew so much attention, while in the 1940s John George Haigh's method of dissolving the bodies of his victims in sulphuric acid had Britain captivated. This book describes these and other fascinating cases––many re-examined to surprising effect with the latest advances in detection and forensics.

"Hate crime" is a modern name for a criminal act committed purely out of hostility towards certain people, groups, or organizations. Such crimes are motivated by racial, sexual, political, or other prejudice and typically involve violence. We tend to categorize crime as something for money or possessions, but hate crimes involve emotions. This makes the perpetrators especially dangerous, because any member of a targeted group can become a victim. Hate crimes have led to the emergence of laws, organizations, and federal agencies that work to counteract these senseless acts. Americans have reacted strongly to fight these crimes, with cities forming hate-crime prevention groups and Congress introducing a Hate Crime Prevention Act. This book traces the history of hate crimes, from the persecution of Native Americans, to modern cases, like the Oklahoma City bombing and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which was aimed at all Americans.

The United States justice system was created when the Constitution was adopted in 1787. The Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation, which gave most of the power to individual states. The Constitution created a strong federal government to bring the states together to work for the good of the nation while balancing their rights to independence and autonomy. Our government's three branches-executive, legislative, and judicial-were designed to check abuses and prevent any one from gaining too much power and influence. The legislative branch creates the laws and the executive branch enforces them. Laws are put into practice by the justice system including the FBI, state justice systems, law enforcement bodies, and the trial system. This book explores the origins and evolution of the greatest democracy's system of justice.

Violence in the news makes us all more security conscious, but criminal activity is nothing new. The threat may seem greater, but being alert and prepared remains the best defense. Burglars tend to go for easy targets. You can make your property, if not impregnable, at least very hard to get into. Dangerous new threats, such as home invasion and carjacking, call for new rules for the whole family. Confidence tricks have always come in an amazing variety of guises––and still do. By asking questions, you can avoid free vacation, offers, unnecessary medical tests, as well as sure-thing investment scams. No one is completely safe from crime, but vigilance can save your life, even when it comes to sexual predators and stalkers. Many young women were murdered by the monstrous Ted Bundy––but several did manage to escape when they heeded warning bells sounding in their heads.

Contemporary crime is a complex topic covering everything from hate crime, industrial espionage, and murder to drug trafficking, international terrorism, and domestic violence. A crime is any action that has been deemed illegal and is punishable by law. Specific laws have been put in place by towns and cities, states, and countries to dissuade people from committing criminal acts. Although crime is easily recognizable, the finer points of law can be more complicated to understand. The law varies among municipalities and states; so it is important to understand the nuts and bolts of the system. Law enforcement and non-line employees, such as forensic scientists, judges, and lawyers, work every day to follow procedure and ensure that the right perpetrators are brought to justice.

Domestic crime affects more people than any other type of crime––whether it be violence in the home (both physical and psychological) or damage to property. The criminal behaviors that police and criminologists classify as domestic crime include men turning on their families and lovers; women taking revenge on former partners; a neighbor who becomes a deadly, threatening menace; a child abused to death. The high incidence of crime committed in the home, usually by people close to their victims, is not a feature of modern life in just a few countries, but has been a worldwide problem from the beginning of time. Efforts to rehabilitate offenders, as well as children who grew up in toxic environments, are just some ways in which societies are trying to address the situation.

Across the globe, government intelligence agencies play a vital role in protecting nations from external and internal threats, such as terrorism, espionage, and the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Intelligence agencies can warn governments of impending crises, offer advance knowledge of long-term dangers, and safeguard public security against the threats from terrorists, drug traffickers, and international arms dealers. As necessary during peacetime as in wartime, government intelligence agencies recruit and train some of the finest minds available and conduct high-risk and sometimes life-threatening work on behalf of national security. Every day the agencies provide crucial information to the decision makers who manage the nation's political, economic, and military strategic interests.

All famous prisons have special features, stories of dramatic riots, exciting escapes, and heartrending stories lurking behind their dark walls. Alcatraz, perched dramatically on a rock in San Francisco Bay was supposedly "escape-proof" and yet several deadly prisoners broke free. New York's Sing Sing Correctional Facility became notorious for the 614 men and women executed in the electric chair. The English prison, Dartmoor, had menacing mists and swirling fogs, which made escape from this prison a terrible risk; while the peach-colored San Quentin, set on California's golden shores, contrasts with the darkness of its Death Row and the violence of its inmates. Mountjoy Prison figures prominently in Ireland's troubled past and its literature. The massive circular buildings of Stateville Penitentiary provide the best example of the once-revolutionary panopticon prison design.

Organized crime is a global phenomenon. From Sicily came the Mafia; Japan spawned and then exported the Yakuza, as China did its Triads, and post-Soviet Russia saw the birth and rapid escalation of its very own Mafiya. These criminal fraternities differ from common criminal gangs in that they operate much like legitimate business corporations, highly efficient and massively profitable, with a definite hierarchical structure. There was a time when these various criminal fraternities were solely a problem for the country that created them. Today, however, organized crime has gone international, and North America, Europe, Australia, and Southeast Asia are now hosts to all of them. These groups, deadly and potentially ruinous to the world's economy, will stop at nothing to preserve their interests.

A new and terrifying dimension of the electronic age, cyber crime is flourishing with no regard for national boundaries. This constantly evolving global phenomenon leaves law enforcement struggling to catch up. The culture of the Internet has led young people to idolize computer hackers and sometimes commit criminal acts. The motive of virus writers varies and organized crime has even gotten in on the action. The largely unchecked spread of cyber crime has led to the creation of a global force to combat it. There are many losers in this dangerous game, and the stakes could not be higher.

The spread of terrorism is perhaps the greatest threat facing the world today. Attacks have occurred in growing numbers during the past fifty years. The destruction of the World Trade Center in New York, and the simultaneous attack on the Pentagon, on September 11, 2001, awakened the attention of the United States to the threat posed to civilian populations throughout the world. Terrorism first assumed an international dimension in 1964 with the establishment of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). No longer was it only the ruling authority that was targeted: innocent nationals, many of whom had no connection with the conflict, were equally at risk. The 1960s saw the rise of the "urban guerillas," whose motive was often no more than social frustration. More recently, Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda and the emergence of Islamic State has escalated the international fight against terrorism.

The U.S. prison system is the largest and most innovative in the world. It boasts some of the most technologically advanced prisons in existence, meeting the highest standards in security. Inside these vast, specialized structures, containing thousands of inmates, highly trained corrections officers use technology to anticipate outbreaks of violence and to prevent riots and escape attempts. The tightly regulated prison system relies on many professionals. Counselors, drug rehabilitation staff, medical personnel, and kitchen workers are among the committed prison employees who daily face some of the world's most hardened criminals. In addition to incarceration and rehabilitation, America's prisons also serve as crime-prevention centers teaching offenders new trades and offering them the chance to learn life skills.

Torture––the deliberate infliction of pain upon the human body––is condemned by most civilized countries, but it is still practiced in many parts of the modern world. For over 3,000 years, it was regarded as not only acceptable but a necessary means of discovering truth. The absence of most other methods of criminal investigation in earlier times tended to justify its use, but "crime" could cover a multitude of activities that were considered contrary to the existing social order. As long as torture remained a part of legal practice, the techniques of torturers––horrific though they were––were generally subject to a degree of control. In more recent times, however, notably during World War II, the torturers have been sadists who derived pleasure from subjecting their victims to terrible suffering. Since 1961, Amnesty International has sought a worldwide ban on torture. But some countries continue to use the rack, the thumbscrews, the "boot", electric shock treatment and other horrifying methods.

No greater threat faces America today than that posed by illicit drugs––and this despite the well-publicized menace of international terrorism. Rather than destroy us from the outside, the war on drugs corrodes society from within. In many of our cities, drugs have transformed whole neighborhoods into lost places of criminality and despair. In order to assure a final victory, we must understand the complexity of the challenge. Each drug has a unique history-from their country of origin to the way in which they are manufactured. These details help us appreciate the depth of the problem. They also are used every day to help the Drug Enforcement Agency, Customs, Coast Guard, and other government agencies, pursue the smugglers.

The systematic killing of a succession of victims, often over a period of many years, is not a modern phenomenon, but it has increased alarmingly over the past 50 years, particularly in the United States. These psychopathic individuals derive pleasure-most frequently sexual-by abducting and murdering innocent victims. The publicity these cases often stir up has law enforcement concerned that a growing number of incidents are "copy cat" crimes. This book covers fascinating and gruesome cases such as, Jack the Ripper, Peter Kurten, and George Joseph Smith. It investigates the root causes that led to the development of the killers' psychopathic personalities and describes the gathering of evidence that eventually led to their identification and arrest.

Capital punishment––the ultimate penalty––is one of the most controversial aspects of America's criminal justice system. Its inclusion in the U.S. constitution sparks heated debate with opponents claiming that it is incompatible with the principles on which the world's greatest democracy stands. Although the death penalty has been around for thousands of years, modern America has changed it in fundamental ways. These days no criminal is put to death lightly. The imposition of the death penalty is subject to an elaborate array of legal restrictions; the convicted are entitled to an extensive––often drawn out––series of appeals.