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Although Andrew Jackson gained notoriety as a rakish young man, religion's influence on him ebbed and flowed as he established himself as part of the South's planter elite. With his devout wife, Rachel, he attended church and knew his Bible and religious subjects well, and while his determination to preserve his reputation involved him in numerous personal conflicts-including a duel that led to his killing a rival-he blended the principles of the antebellum South's honor-based culture with his belief in a traditional, orthodox version of Christianity. Likewise, he easily reconciled his religion with his ownership of slaves and his advocacy of Native American removal, and while he equated his enemies with the forces of evil, he always attributed his military and political accomplishments to the blessings of Providence. As he aged, Jackson became more devout, but he never experienced a dramatic conversion-contradicting the expectations of the leading revivalists of his era's Second Great Awakening-and he consistently promoted religious liberty and separation of church and state as core republican principles. Ultimately, Jackson's faith reflected a version of Christianity widespread in his era, and his frequent appeals for divine guidance and for God's blessing on his nation further encouraged the development of an American civil religion.