Septuagint

Few books have generated as many debates about geographical features as the book of Exodus. It describes in detail a series of wonders that the Lord God of the Israelites, performed to cause them to be freed from their slavery in the country, and then their trek across the wilderness to a mountain on which God descended and gave them the Torah. The wonders themselves have been the source of much speculation in the past 2500 years, but the trek across the wilderness and the location of the mountain of God are the real issues most commonly debated, although ironically, not generally by Jews, Samaritans, or Beta Israelites, the three groups that actually try to follow laws found in the Torah. Most of the speculation about the geography has been by Christian and Islamic scholars, who have tried to retrace the path the Israelites took out of Egypt in order to find the mountain of God, however, many mountains have been found following the places listed along the route, as most of the locations are debated. Half a dozen mountains have been identified, each with a list of locations along the route that may or may not be the original locations. This doesn't appear to be a new problem, as even then names for the mountain in the Torah and other ancient Hebrew texts changes from one paragraph to the next. This mountain is called both Sinai and Horeb throughout the Torah, and then Seir in the book of Judges, which is widely regarded as being the oldest Hebrew text that has not been heavily redacted. Most of the confusion about where the mountain is derived from the various interpretations of the route the Israelites took out of Egypt, as well as who the Israelites were while they were in Egypt. Some of this confusion was clearly caused by the translation of the Septuagint at the Library of Alexandria circa 250 BC. The Greek translators used the term Erythrean Sea to translate the Hebrew term Suf Yam which simply translates as 'Reed Sea' or 'Papyrus Sea.' The Greek term Erythrean Sea was an adopted Persian term that referred to the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea. No doubt the Greek translators were covering their bases, as they had no idea where the events of the Suf Yam had taken place. This mistranslation has unfortunately been carried into virtually all Christian translations of the Hebrew Scriptures as 'Red Sea,' including those made from the Masoretic Texts which do not mention the Red Sea. Ironically, this has even been re-imported to Hebrew, where the name for the Red Sea is now Suf Yam, making the ancient Greek mistranslation look correct. Nevertheless, ancient Egyptian records that have been translated in the past couple of centuries clarify the location of the event, and it is not in the Red Sea, which almost all translations of the Bibles and Targums report.

The Book of Judges is very old, and the Song of Deborah may be the oldest surviving piece of Israelite literature. It uses some of the most archaic forms of Hebrew, and was likely composed in Canaanite before Hebrew became a defined dialect as this issue of dialect was part of the division between the Israelites during the battle between the Gileadites, east of the Jordan, and the Ephraimites from west of the Jordan. There is evidence that the book was either assembled or redacted in the Kingdom of Samaria. The region of the book also generally corresponds with the territory of the northern kingdom, both the region that had once been under Egyptian authority west of the Jordan, and the region east of the Jordan which had generally been independent of Egypt. The synchronizations between the Book of Judges and the records of Egypt are far too many to be overlooked or ignored. As almost all denominations of Christians and Jews agree that King Saul established his kingdom in 1037 BC, and the Septuagint's version of Judges includes 460 years of the land being ruled by Judges, or foreign kings, followed by an era of chaos when there was no king, the latest possible date the Exodus could have taken place was the 1500s BC, which supports the idea that the 10 plagues of Egypt were descriptions of the fallout and effects of the Minoan eruption which Egyptologists date to 1550 BC. According to Judges, 42 years later the Israelites invaded Samaria, (northern modern Israel and the Palestinian West Bank) under the leadership of Joshua, which would have been 1508 BC. The plan was already laid out in the Book of Joshua to occupy the entire land of Canaan, yet just three years later, when Joshua was 85 years old, the Israelites stopped their campaign, after having only occupied the cities in Samaria, this would have been in 1505 BC. The reason they stopped their invasion is not given, however, Egyptian records do explain it, as in the same year, 1505 BC, Pharaoh Thutmose I marched his army through Canaan to reconquer it for the Egyptian Empire. It had previously been under the control of the Hyksos Dynasty whose empire collapsed in the aftermath of the Minoan eruption. In 1550 BC, the Hyksos capital fell to the rival southern dynasty of Pharaoh Ahmose I, and the Hyksos retreated to their fortress of Sharuhen, near modern Gaza in the Palestinian Gaza Strip. This suggests the Hyksos maintained control over Canaan until Sharuhen fell to Ahmose I in 1540 BC. Ahmose I led an invasion of southern Canaan a few years later in an attempt to root out any remaining Hyksos. Egyptologists are not sure when this campaign was, placing it sometime between 1537 and 1527 BC. This campaign is not believed to have reached farther north than Byblos, in modern Lebanon, and did not result in any long-term political control over Canaan. Ahmose I's main goal seems to have been to destroy any remaining Hyksos in the region to ensure they did not try to recapture Egypt.

The book of Ruth appears to be part of a Samaritan story designed to splice the Moabites into the royal genealogy. The Book of Deuteronomy, which was likely written in Samaria, uses Moabite names of locations instead of Judahite names, indicating that a Moabite priesthood was active in Samaria before the kingdom fell to the Assyrians. The Book of Judges refers to King Abimelech as the bastard son of Gideon by a prostitute, which speaks volumes about his memory, however, he was an Ephraimite, as was the Abimelech in the Book of Ruth, indicating that he could not have been viewed that badly a century after his death, when Ruth's father in law would have been born. Ruth, the step-daughter of Abimelech in the Book of Ruth, ultimately became an ancestor of King David, meaning it is possible that some Israelites were connecting the two Abimelechs in the Second Temple era, claiming that David was a descendant of King Abimelech. The setting of the Ruth is the lands of Judah and Moab in the early-1000s BC, when the Book of Judges claimed there was no king. The last judge under the Pelesets in the books of Judges was Samson's father Manoah, who ruled until 1090 BC when the Peleset Kingdom apparently collapsed. This was just over a decade before the collapse of the Egyptian New Kingdom in 1077 BC, which began the Third Intermediate Period, when Egyptian records became sparse. This collapse of civilization in Canaan and Egypt was mirrored by collapses across the Mediterranean, sparking what the Greeks would later call the Dark Age. This Dark Age is not in doubt, however, is poorly understood due to the sparse records from the era. The story would have taken place around the same era as the Benjaminite genocide in the Book of Judges, which is likely the reason the book of Ruth was placed directly behind the book of Judges in the Septuagint. It is not clear when the Book of Ruth was written, however, it is not generally considered to date back to the era it is set in. Based on the connection between the Book of Ruth and King David, it seems likely that the book was written no earlier than the era of King David, however, the book is generally dated to the time of Ezra the Scribe circa 350 BC. It is generally interpreted as an attempt to bridge the older books of Joshua and Judges with the newer books of the Kingdoms (Masoretic Samuel and Kings), which are generally accepted as having been compiled during the time of Ezra the scribe.

In the mid-3rd century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. The original version, published circa 250 BC, only included the Torah, or in Greek terms, the Pentateuch. The Torah is the five books traditionally credited to Moses, circa 1500 BC: Cosmic Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. According to Jewish tradition, the original Torah was lost when the Babylonians destroyed the Temple of Solomon and was later rewritten by Ezra the Scribe from memory during the Second Temple period. Since the 1800s, the majority of Biblical scholars have interpreted the books of Leviticus and Numbers as a later addition to the original laws of Moses found in Exodus, with Deuteronomy being a later addition during the Babylonian era. Genesis is either considered to be part of Moses' original work, or a later addition in the Persian era, depending on the scholar. Leviticus and Numbers contain a number of amendments to Moses' laws in Exodus, as well as establishes the land rights of the various tribes of Israel within historic Canaan, including the assignment of several cities and their environs to the Levitical Priesthood. The most obvious amendment to Moses' laws, is replacing the sacrifice of the first-born, by the establishment of the Levitical Priesthood. Exodus 13 includes a requirement that the firstborn Israelites must be slaughtered as a sacrifice to Iaw, however, allowed an animal to be substituted. This law would not have been difficult for a group of nomadic shepherds to follow but would have become progressively more difficult as the Israelites became more urbanized in Canaan. This seems to have resulted in an increase of child-sacrifice which the prophet Jeremiah spoke out against during his lifetime, estimated at between 650 BC and 570 BC. The practice was officially banned by King Josiah around 630 BC when the Levites 'found' the 'original' Torah of Moses during the refurbishing of Solomon's Temple. As this could not have been Moses' original Torah, as Moses had nothing to do with the Temple of Solomon, it was likely when Leviticus and Numbers were added to the Torah. This is likely when the 'authorized version' of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers were cobbled together from the conflicting Elohist and Yahwist sources, although some groups may have continued to use the older versions of these books, as the Nazarenes had their own Torah in the 1st-century BC.

Since the 1800s, the majority of Biblical scholars have interpreted the books of Leviticus and Numbers as a later addition to the original laws of Moses found in Exodus, with Deuteronomy being an even later addition during the Babylonian or Persian eras. Cosmic Genesis is either considered to be part of Moses' original work or a later addition in the Persian era, depending on the scholar. Leviticus and Numbers contain several amendments to Moses' laws in Exodus, as well as establishing the land rights of the various tribes of Israel within historic Canaan, including the assignment of several cities and their environs to the Levitical Priesthood. The most obvious amendment to Moses' laws, is replacing the sacrifice of the firstborn with the establishment of the Levitical Priesthood. Exodus 13 includes a requirement that the firstborn Israelites must be slaughtered as a sacrifice to the Lord, however, allowed an animal to be substituted. This law would not have been difficult for a group of nomadic shepherds to follow but would have become progressively more difficult as the Israelites became more urbanized in Canaan. The substitution of the Levitical Priesthood for the firstborn Israelites was established in Numbers chapter 3. This 'authorized' Torah also removed the Korahites from the Temple of Solomon, adding the Revolt of Korah to the Torah, set long before the Israelites entered Canaan. The Sons of Korah, or Korahites, were a rival priesthood to the Levites that administered the Temple of Solomon from the time of Solomon until Josiah. They are believed to have originally been the priesthood of El Elyon at the Jebusite Temple before David conquered them. Solomon, David's youngest son, was an unlikely heir, and not the original heir apparent, as his elder brother Adonijah attempted to succeed David by marrying Abishag the Shunamite, David's youngest wife, who was twelve years old at the time. However, Solomon's Jebusite mother Bathsheba, and the prophet Nathan conspired to place the fifteen-year-old Solomon on the throne and then purged the government of non-Jebusites, who appear to have all supported Adonijah. The Sons of Korah were the authors of some of the Psalms, and are documented as existing in Judea as late as the Persian era, although seem to have disappeared by the early Greek era. Some have theorized they may have formed the priesthood of the Essenes (Nazarenes) in the late-Persian era, as the Essenes had another Torah, and used different holy books from the other Jews, such as the books of Enoch and Jubilees.

The four books of the Kingdoms are believed to have been translated into Greek and added to the Septuagint around 200 BC when a large number of refugees fled from the war in Judea and settled in Egypt. The four books of the Kingdoms would later become two books in the Masoretic Texts, the books of Samuel and Kings. Subsequent Latin and English translations of the Masoretic Texts labeled these books as 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Samuel, and 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Kings. The Septuagint's 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms is the book called 1ˢᵗ Samuel in most Catholic and Protestant Bibles, and 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms in Orthodox and Coptic Bibles. This version differs slightly from the later Masoretic book of Samuel, although all three are generally similar. Unlike the Masoretic version, Saul does not repeatedly meet David for the first time, meaning that either the Greeks simplified the Aramaic texts they translated, or the Masoretic version is based on a different version of 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms. While a Greek simplification of the text is the simplest explanation for the less-confusing narrative, it cannot explain why the Masoretic version has Saul meeting David for the first time in three unique stories, or, why the Greek translation has transliterated Hebrew words that are no longer in the Masoretic version. The origin of 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms, along with the other five books of Kingdoms and Paralipomena, is a matter of great debate among scholars. The Bava Basra tractate of the Talmud, reports that the first 25 chapters of Masoretic Samuel, and therefore the first 25 chapters of 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms, was written by the prophet Samuel, and the rest of Masoretic Samuel, which would be chapter 26 through 31 of 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms and the entire book of 2ⁿᵈ Kingdoms was written by the prophets Gad and Nathan. Samuel, Gad, and Nathan are all mentioned in 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Kingdoms, however, most biblical scholars have rejected the idea that they had anything to do with the authorship of these books for the past few hundred years. Almost all scholars in every era have agreed with the idea that the six books were based on the older, now lost, books of the Chronicles of the Kings of Samaria and Judea mentioned in the later books of Kingdoms. These six later books are generally accepted as having been written in the Babylonian or Persian era and then redacted in the Greek era or Hasmonean dynasty, however, the origin of the earlier works is a matter of debate. The language of 1ˢᵗ Kingdoms is archaic, and early sections dealing with Eli and Samuel read like a continuation of Judges, implying the original book of Judges continued until Saul seized power in 1037 BC.

In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Israelite scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. The original version, published circa 250 BC, only included the Torah, or in Greek terms, the Pentateuch. The Torah is the five books traditionally credited to Moses, circa 1500 BC: Cosmic Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Greek terms in Deuteronomy are translations of known Canaanite gods, most especially, El, the Canaanite creator god. El translates in Canaanite and Hebrew as 'God,' and is the primary god worshiped in ancient Canaan in the era Abraham was reported to have passed through the area. El was also the patron god of the Temple of El, built by Jacob near the modern city of Nablus in the Palestinian West Bank, which featured in many of the early Israelite scriptures before Samaria was conquered by the Assyrian Empire. In the Book of Micah, the Temple of El was referred to as Jacob's Temple of El, which confirms that the Israelites in the 8ᵗʰ century BC considered the Temple of El at Shiloh to be the Temple of El that Jacob built, in Cosmic Genesis chapter 35. If the Greeks translated the Septuagint accurately, which everything other than the names of God indicates, then the term God would have been El in the texts they translated. Likewise, Lord God would have been Adon Elohim, the title of El, which translates as 'Father of the gods.' Adon Elohim was a Canaanite title for El, found in the Ugaritic Texts. This translation attempts to restore and translate the original Septuagint's book of Deuteronomy as it would have appeared circa 250 BC.

In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Israelite scriptures for the Library of Alexandria. This translation later became known as the Septuagint, based on the description of the translation by seventy translators in the Letter of Aristeas. The four books of the Kingdoms are generally believed to have been written during the time of Ezra the scribe, compiled from the now-lost books of the Chronicles of the Kingdoms of Samaria and Judah. The authors of the Kingdoms repeatedly refer to the Chronicles as sources for more detailed information, suggesting the books of the Kingdoms were an abridged version and certainly written from a specific theological perspective missing from the Chronicles. There are loanwords in both the Greek and Hebrew translations of 3ʳᵈ Kingdoms that indicate the book, and presumably, all four of the Kingdoms were once written in Cuneiform, from which they were translated into Aramaic. The Aramaic translation appears to have been done in Babylonia, as it uses Mesopotamian terminology instead of Canaanite. This may indicate that the Kingdoms were originally compiled in Babylonia by Judahite captives, presumably from the Phoenician (Paleo-Hebrew) books of the Chronicles. The four books of the Kingdoms are believed to have been translated into Greek from the Aramaic text and added to the Septuagint around 200 BC when a large number of refugees fled from the war in Judea and settled in Egypt. The four books of the Kingdoms would later become two books in the Masoretic Texts, the books of Samuel and Kings. Subsequent Latin and English translations of the Masoretic Text labeled these books as 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Samuel, and 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Kings. The Septuagint's 3ʳᵈ Kingdoms, is the book called 1ˢᵗ Kings in most Catholic and Protestant bibles, and 3ʳᵈ Kingdoms in Orthodox and Coptic bibles.

The general view of both historians and biblical scholars is that the Book of Joshua holds no historical value and is simply a book written during the life of Josiah, or during the Babylonian captivity, or even later by Ezra during the Second Temple Era, however, this is based on analysis of the Masoretic version of the book, which is quite different from the Septuagint's version. In Rabbinical history, as a century and a half have been redacted, Joshua's life is dated to the early 1300s BC, instead of the late 1500s BC. This era does not align with anything found in the archaeological record, and therefore the book reads like fiction. Likewise, the Masoretic version is about a god named Yahweh, a name not known to archaeology until around 800 BC, meaning that the Book of Joshua, if the Masoretic version were the original, would have to have been written after that time. The Septuagint's version is quite different in the details, as the god of the book is Lord God (Adon Elim), the God (El) of the ancient Canaanite religion, who was worshiped in the 2nd millennium BC. Joshua's invasion of Canaan circa 1508 BC, 42 years after the Minoan Eruption, would also place the Israelites at Jericho at around the time the walls were torn down. The ruins of Jericho were identified as the mound at Tell es-Sultan in 1869, and this is still generally accepted as ancient Jericho. The city was a major trading center, and heavily fortified city for thousands of years, until circa 1500 BC when the walls were torn down. The exact date when the walls were torn down is unclear, with estimates ranging from 1700 to 1400 BC, however, 1500 BC is the most widely quoted date. In approximately 1504 BC the Egyptian King Thutmose I led an expedition through Canaan and Syria to the Euphrates River, and it is assumed by many historians that he ripped down the walls of Jericho, however, that is not possible. Thutmose recorded that he found no one to fight him in Canaan, and the local peoples submitted to Egyptian power without conflict. Moreover, later the same year he launched his invasion of Nubia, to the south of Egypt, meaning he simply did not have time to secretly lay siege to Jericho. This pacified Canaan ruled by people who were afraid of the Egyptians is consistent with the account in Joshua, however, the Egyptian 'invasion' is not mentioned in Joshua. Given the history between the Israelites and Egyptians, it is not unlikely it would have been omitted, especially if there was no war, and the Israelites surrendered to the Egyptians without a fight. After 1500 BC the people in Canaan, whoever they were, began fortifying their cities. His heir, Thutmose II, also sent an expedition into Canaan and Syria, and crossed the Euphrates, however, only reported fighting nomads in the Sinai. There are no records of his successor, Queen Hatshepsut invading Canaan. Her heir Thutmose III did send multiple armies through Canaan demanding tribute, however, these campaigns appear to have been mostly peaceful until around 1450 BC, when he marched his army into northern Canaan to invade Syria and occupied all of Canaan in the process. The cities of Kadesh on the Orontes (in modern Syria), and Byblos in modern Lebanon, are mentioned as being major conquests of his campaigns, which laid the foundation for his later attack on the Mitanni Empire in Syria. After Tuthmose's campaign, the region was formally part of the Egyptian Empire for centuries, however, Egyptian records show they generally left the people alone and did not exert much control over the region beyond demanding regular tribute. The Egyptian records show there were many local chieftains during this era, sometimes fighting each other, or a people called the Habiru, which some believe to be an ancient reference to the Hebrews.

In the mid 3ʳᵈ century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria. The creation of the Septuagint resulted from this order. It is generally accepted that there were several versions of the ancient Hebrew and Samaritan scriptures before the translation of the Septuagint. The two books of the Paralipomena were translated into Greek and added to the Septuagint around 180 BC after a large number of refugees fled from the war in Judea and settled in Egypt. The two books of the Paralipomena were one book in the Masoretic Texts: the book of Divrei-hayyamim. Subsequent Latin translations were renamed 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Chronikon by Jerome in the 5ᵗʰ century AD. Subsequent English translations of the Old Testament labeled these books as 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Chronicles. The term Paralipomena, which means 'things left out,' is similar to the Hebrew name Divrei-hayyamim, which means 'things in the days.' The books are a collection of texts from various eras of Israelite history, spanning the era of the old Israelite Kingdoms, circa 1000 BC, through the Persian conquest, of circa 539 BC. Scholars have debated the origin of the books throughout their history, and there is no consensus within Rabbinical literature, Christian literature, or modern scholarship. The general Rabbinical view is that the two books of Paralipomena were written by one author, as Divrei-hayyamim, and then translated into Greek. The dominant early Christian view was that the books were written by Ezra the Scribe, circa 350 BC, however, this view was generally abandoned in Western Europe during the Protestant Reformation. Modern scholarly analysis has no consensus, however, the books do themselves indicate the eras they were compiled, nevertheless, the authors remain unknown. Based on the references within 1ˢᵗ Paralipomenon, the book was compiled sometime after 732 BC, when Tiglath-Pileser III deported the Reubenites, Gadites, and the people of Manasseh to other regions of the Assyrian Empire. The surviving Hebrew text of Divrei-hayyamim does, however, contain a reference to the Temple in Jerusalem as the 'Temple of the Gods', which means the original text of the book has to predate King Josiah's reforms of circa 625 BC, and likely predates King Hezekiah's similar reforms decades earlier. Both Hezekiah and Josiah are recorded as removing the idols of the gods from the temple, which had by all accounts been in the temple since it was built by King Solomon. The books of Paralipomena differ slightly from the later Masoretic book of Divrei-hayyamim, although the three are generally similar. In 200 BC the Greek Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty took Judea from Egypt and began an effort to Hellenize the Judeans, which included erecting a statue of Zeus in the Second Temple in Jerusalem and effectively banning traditional Judaism. This Hellenizing activity was partially successful, creating the Sadducee faction of Judaism, however, it also led the Maccabean Revolt in 165 BC, which itself created the independent Kingdom of Judea. This Kingdom had a tenuous alliance with the Roman Republic until General Pompey conquered Syria into the Roman Republic in 69 BC. Pomey's goal was to liberate Greek-speaking communities in the Middle East that had fallen under the rule of non-Greeks when the Seleucids Syrian Empire had collapsed, and he carved up Judea, and Edom to the east, placing Greek-speaking cities under the protection of the Roman province of Syria. He also liberated several smaller communities that had been occupied by Judea, granting them self-government, including Ashdod, Yavne, Jaffa, Dora, Marissa, and Samaria.

In the mid-3rd century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. The original version, published circa 250 BC, only included the Torah, or in Greek terms, the Pentateuch. The Torah is the five books traditionally credited to Moses, circa 1500 BC: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The first edition was followed by the second, before 200 BC which added the books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, which was later known as the Octateuch. Around 200 BC the four books of the Kingdoms and two books of the Paralipomena were added to the Septuagint, along with the two books of Ezra the Scribe. The four books of the Kingdoms are believed to have been translated into Greek and added to the Septuagint around 200 BC when a large number of refugees fled from the war in Judea and settled in Egypt. The four books of the Kingdoms would later become two books in the Masoretic Texts, the books of Samuel and Kings. Subsequent Latin and English translations of the Masoretic Texts labeled these books as 1st and 2nd Samuel and 1st and 2nd Kings. The Septuagint's 2nd Kingdoms is the book called 2nd Samuel in most Catholic and Protestant Bibles, and 2nd Kingdoms in Orthodox and Coptic Bibles. This version differs slightly from the later Masoretic book of Samuel, although all three are generally similar. While a Greek simplification of the text is the simplest explanation for the less-confusing narrative, it cannot explain why the Greek translation has transliterated Hebrew words that are no longer in the Masoretic version. The origin of 2nd Kingdoms, along with the other five books of Kingdoms and Paralipomena, is a matter of great debate among scholars. The Bava Basra tractate of the Talmud, reports that the first 25 chapters of Masoretic Samuel, and therefore the first 25 chapters of 1st Kingdoms, was written by the prophet Samuel, and the rest of Masoretic Samuel, which would be chapter 26 through 31 of 1st Kingdoms and the entire book of 2nd Kingdoms was written by the prophets Gad and Nathan. Samuel, Gad, and Nathan are all mentioned in 1st and 2nd Kingdoms, however, most biblical scholars have rejected the idea that they had anything to do with the authorship of these books for the past few hundred years. Almost all scholars in every era have agreed with the idea that the six books were based on the older, now lost, books of the Chronicles of the Kings of Samaria and Judea mentioned in the later books of Kingdoms. These six later books are generally accepted as having been written in the Babylonian or Persian era and then redacted in the Greek era or Hasmonean dynasty, however, the origin of the earlier works is a matter of debate. The Hebrew language of the second half of Samuel (2nd Kingdoms) is less archaic than the language of the first half of Samuel (1st Kingdoms), suggesting it was written later than the text that became 1st Kingdoms. The Greek translation also included a number of inconsistencies with the translations of 1st, 3rd, and 4th Kingdoms, as well as the following book of 1st Paralipomenon, implying it was redacted sometime after the Hasmonean redaction, but before the Codex Vaticanus was prepared in the 4th century, which includes the oldest copy of the Septuagint's 2nd Kingdoms currently in existence.

Both the Greek translations of 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Ezra, and the Hebrew translation of Ezra (2ⁿᵈ Ezra), contain relics of an Aramaic source-text, unfortunately, the Aramaic Book of Ezra-Nehemiah is lost. The difference in the surviving Aramaic words within the Greek 1ˢᵗ Ezra, and Hebrew Ezra (Greek 2ⁿᵈ Ezra), it appears that the two versions of Ezra already existed in the Aramaic versions. The differences between 2ⁿᵈ Ezra and Masoretic Ezra are minimal, and could be accounted for as scribal notes, and the redaction of Simon the Zealot, who added the name Yahweh extensively to the ancient texts when he translated them into Hebrew. 1ˢᵗ Ezra, the less spiritual of the two versions of the Septuagint's Ezra, clearly dates to the Persian era, as it treats the Judahite Lord of the Temple in Jerusalem as another version of Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian God. Several Zoroastrian titles of Ahura Mazda are applied to the Judahite Lord, including King of Truth, and King of the Sky. Letters from the Persian Kings Cyrus II, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, as included in the book, all of which were closely associated with Zoroastrianism, yet, referred to the Judahite Lord using titles generally associated with Ahura Mazda. In the Greek 1ˢᵗ Ezra and 2ⁿᵈ Ezra, as well as the Hebrew Ezra, the temple is described as being a Zoroastrian fire-temple, containing an eternal fire, which Nehemiah even referred to as burning naphtha, like the other fire-temples across the Persian Empire. As the books of Ezra includes a Letter from Cyrus dated to the first year of his rule over Babylon, this letter would date to 539 BC, however, the rest of the kings aren't always easy to distinguish from each other, as the Persian Empire had three kings named Darius, and four named Artaxerxes. The books of Ezra also describe several different groups of Judahites returning from Babylon, and in 2ⁿᵈ Ezra and Masoretic Ezra the stories repeat with different details, as once there must have been separate Aramaic books of Ezra and Nehemiah that contained different details. The first group of Judahites to return from Babylon, were sent by Cyrus II after he conquered Babylon in 539 BC. They were led by Zerubabbel ben Shealtiel, and the priest Jesus ben Jehozadak, although Sheshbazzar was listed as the 'chief of Judah.' Sheshbazzar is a Persian name that translates as 'fire-worshiper,' and so he could not have been an Israelite, and was likely the Persian military governor dispatched to Jerusalem to secure it for the Persian Empire. After they defeated the Babylonians, most regions of the Babylonian Empire attempted to become independent states, and Cyrus II spend the nine years after Babylon fell consolidating his empire, before dying in battle, without ever sending an expedition into Egypt, which had been part of the Babylonian Empire, and which he had theoretically conquered. Cyrus II's heir, Cambyses II did conquer Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica, however, was assassinated before he could launch his planned invasion of Carthage. The books of Ezra all include a letter sent by Tattannu, the governor of Syria and Phoenicia, which inquired about the temple that Zerubbabel and the returned Judahites were building in Jerusalem, along with a replying letter from King Darius confirming that Cyrus authorized the temple's construction, and Darius further ordering the governor of Syria and Phoenicia to assist. This letter is sent during the era of Zerubbabel, who had been sent by Cyrus II, and therefore the king in question had to be Darius I, who ruled between 522 and 486. The beginning of his rule was only 17 years after King Cyrus II had sent Zerubbabel to Jerusalem, while Darius II would not assume the throne for another century.

The term Paralipomena, which means 'things left out,' is a general translation of Divrei-hayyamim, which means 'things in the days.' The books are a collection of texts from various eras of Israelite history, spanning the era of the old Israelite Kingdoms, circa 1000 BC, through the Persian conquest, of circa 539 BC. Scholars have debated the origin of the books throughout their history, and there is no consensus within Rabbinical literature, Christian literature, or modern scholarship. The general Rabbinical view is that the two books of Paralipomena were written by one author, as Divrei-hayyamim, and then translated into Greek. The dominant early Christian view was that the books were written by Ezra the Scribe, circa 350 BC, however, this view was generally abandoned in Western Europe during the Protestant Reformation. Modern scholarly analysis has no consensus, however, the books do themselves indicate the eras they were compiled, nevertheless, the authors remain unknown. Based on the references within 2nd Paralipomenon to the Egyptian king Osorkon I as a Kushite, parts of the book must have been compiled sometime between 943 and 716 BC, when Egypt was part of the Kushite Empire, while later sections of 2nd Paralipomenon must have been compiled sometime after 539 BC, when Cyrus the Great conquered the Babylonian Empire. The surviving Hebrew text of Divrei-hayyamim does, however, contain a reference to the Temple in Jerusalem as the 'Temple of the Gods,' which means the original text of the book has to predate King Josiah's reforms of circa 625 BC, and likely predates King Hezekiah's similar reforms decades earlier. Both Hezekiah and Josiah are recorded as removing the idols of the gods from the temple, which had by all accounts been in the temple since it was built by King Solomon.

In the mid-3rd century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. It is generally accepted that there were several versions of the ancient Hebrew and Samaritan scriptures before the translation of the Septuagint. The two books of Ezra were translated into Greek and added to the Septuagint before 200 BC when a large number of refugees fled the ongoing wars in Judea and settled in Egypt. The two books of Ezra were two different versions of the same basic story, one likely a Sadducee version, and the other a Pharisee text. 2nd Ezra became in the Masoretic Texts' version of Ezra, and by the year 100 AD, the Apocalypse of Ezra was in circulation as 3rd Ezra. This has created some confusion among Biblical Translators throughout the centuries. This version of Ezra is called 1st Esdras (1st Ezra) in Orthodox Bibles and Protestant Bibles that include the Apocrypha, 3 Esdras in Catholic Bibles that include the Apocrypha, and Greek Ezra in the Ethiopian Bible. The Septuagint's 1st and 2nd Ezra are thematically similar, telling the generally same story, however from two different points of view. They tell the story of the fall of Jerusalem, first to the Egyptians, and then the Babylonians, followed by Babylon's fall to the Persians, following which the Judahites returned to Judah and rebuilt the temple in Jerusalem. 1st Ezra was clearly written from a non-spiritual viewpoint, common among the Sadducees, and repeatedly makes it clear that the author, Ezra, and various kings, viewed the Lord as the Judahite version of other gods, including the Egyptian creator and Sun-god Atum, and the Zoroastrian 'god of truth' and 'King of the Sky' Ahura Mazda. These views are inconsistent with the view of the Pharisees, which developed under the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty after Judea broke free from the rule of the Greeks, and the Lord became a separate god from all others. Both the Greek translations of 1st and 2nd Ezra, and the Hebrew translation of Ezra-Nehemiah (2nd Ezra), contain relics of an Aramaic source-text, unfortunately, the Aramaic Book of Ezra is lost. The difference in the surviving Aramaic words within the Greek 1st Ezra, and Hebrew Ezra-Nehemiah, it appears that the two versions of Ezra already existed in the Aramaic versions. 1st Ezra, the less spiritual of the two, clearly dates to the Persian era, as it treats the Judahite Lord of the Temple in Jerusalem as another version of Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian God. Several Zoroastrian titles of Ahura Mazda are applied to the Judahite Lord, including King of Truth, and King of the Sky. Letters from the Persian Kings Cyrus II, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, as included in the book, all of which were closely associated with Zoroastrianism, yet, referred to the Judahite Lord using titles generally associated with Ahura Mazda. In the Greek 1st Ezra and 2nd Ezra, and the Hebrew Ezra-Nehemiah, the temple is described as being a Zoroastrian fire-temple, containing an eternal fire, which Nehemiah even referred to as burning naphtha, like the other fire-temples across the Persian Empire.

The origin of the Book of Judith has been debated for thousands of years, and is often assumed to have been written in Greek as anti-Hellenic propaganda during the Maccabean Revolt. It isn't clear why an anti-Hellenic book would have been written in Greek by an Aramaic-speaking people, however, no ancient copies of it survive in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Phoenician (Samaritan / Judahite). There are Hebrew translations, however, they are dated to the middle ages, 1000 years after the oldest surviving copies of the Judith found in the Septuagint. The Greek translations are remarkably consistent compared to the radically different versions of the Book of Tobit in the surviving copies of the Septuagint. The name of the king in the book of Judith is named Nebuchadnezzar, which was the name of the king of Babylon, between 605 and 562 BC. However, other than the name of the king, no other elements of the story indicate the story originated with the Babylonians. Nebuchadnezzar did not fight the Medes, and could not have killed the king of Media, as the two countries were close allies at the time, and under King Cyaxares the Median Empire reached its peak. Nebuchadnezzar didn't launch a war against the Elamites, who in fact fell under the control of Cyaxares's Median Empire. As the name Nebuchadnezzar was used to replace Achiacharos in the book of Tobit, when the Sinaiticus version was simplified into the Vaticanus version, it's likely that the name Nebuchadnezzar was simply used to replaces an older name as well. There are several indicators in the book that point to the original king being Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria between 668 and 627 BC. Ashurbanipal did fight two wars against Elam, and virtually annihilated the Elamites in the second war. Ashurbanipal also invaded Media, and during the fighting the Median king Phraortes was killed, allowing Ashurbanipal to claim victory, even though he didn't consolidate his victory and integrate Media back into the Assyrian Empire. When Ashurbanipal had launched the invasion of Media, in his 17th year, he ordered the local kings from across his empire to send troops to the war, but almost all refused, which was a general insurrection. Therefore, while committed to the war against Media, after defeating the Medians, he was eager to return to Assyria, and restore order to his empire.

1ˢᵗ Maccabees tells the story of the Maccabean Revolt against the rule of the Seleucid Empire in the 2ⁿᵈ century BC. The content of 1ˢᵗ Maccabees appears to be a Sadducee text, as it gives all credit to the self-declared high priests that led the rebellion against the Greeks, occasionally mentioning the sky-god Shamayim or the earth-goddess Eretz. It also omits the names of the other gods that 2ⁿᵈ Maccabees and 3ʳᵈ Maccabees mention the Judeans worshiping, such as Dionysus, which supports its authorship in the Hasmonean Dynasty, when the other gods were no longer tolerated. Four books of Maccabees were ultimately added to the Septuagint, three in the 1ˢᵗ century BC, and the 4ᵗʰ as an appendix in the 1ˢᵗ century AD. No trace of these books has been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, and they are generally thought to have been written in Greek. 1ˢᵗ and 2ⁿᵈ Maccabees do include several Aramaic loanwords that support an Aramaic source text. The Syriac Bibles also include a 5ᵗʰ Maccabees, which is a translation of book 6 of Josephus' The Judean War. The Judean War is considered extended canon in the Ethiopic Bibles, however, the Ethiopic Bibles also include three books of Maccabees, which are not based on the Greek books, or Josephus. An Arabic book of Maccabees also exists, which is often mislabeled as 5ᵗʰ Maccabees in English language literature, because it was initially misidentified as being the same book as Syriac 5ᵗʰ Maccabees. The Arabic book is a translation of a Palestinian Aramaic book from circa 525 AD, which itself appears to be based on the Hebrew book of Maccabees, which surfaced much later. The Hebrew version of Maccabees was collected with other Hebrew language manuscripts from various eras in a Yiddish compilation in the 1300s. The Hebrew translation of Maccabees was likely composed in Iberia earlier than 500 AD and was probably based on an Aramaic text, along with an Iberian tale about Hannibal. The Aramaic text that was used is closely related to the text found in the Josippon, which is believed to have been composed in southern Italy in the 900s. The Josippon claims to be a copy of the book of Joseph ben Gurion, one of the leaders of the Judean Revolt of 66 AD. Joseph died in 68 AD, and Josephus, who survived the war, did not report that Joseph was a writer, however, it stands to reason his faction must have had some form of propaganda, likely based on the Maccabean Revolt. These Josippon-related versions of Maccabees are of very little historic value, as they are replete with historical errors. Their original function appears to have been to serve as inspiration rather than to educate.

3rd Maccabees happens earlier than 1st and 2nd Maccabees, set between 217 and 205 BC, and does not include Judas the Hammer (the Maccabee), or his brothers, which implies it is part of a larger collection of Maccabean texts, possibly Jason of Cyrene's now lost five-volume version of Maccabees. If it was part of Jason's version of Maccabees, then it was likely the second or third volume, as it is before Jason and his brothers enter the story, but its abrupt beginning indicates it was not the first volume. Unlike 1st Maccabees, 3rd Maccabees does have a supernatural element, as messengers descend from the sky to save the Judahites, although the Judahites were apparently unable to see them. As the story told within 3rd Maccabees cannot be historically proven, it is generally considered to be a work of historical fiction, however, this cannot be proven either. Like 2nd Maccabees, 3rd Maccabees appear to be an anti-Phrygian work, or at least anti-Sabaoth/Dionysus, suggesting it is another relic of Jason's work, and Jason's work was anti-Sabaoth in nature. In 3rd Maccabees, the worship of Sabaoth at the Temple in Jerusalem is mentioned, under his Greek name Dionysus, while Philip the Phrygian in 2nd Maccabees is sent to govern Jerusalem decades later, he does appear to have been in charge of the Temple in Jerusalem. References to the Judean god Sabaoth appear at this point in the Greek language literature, either transliterated directly in the form of Sabaoth or translated into Greek as Dionysus. While there is a similar word in the ancient Israelite scriptures, it as translated as ṣbʾwt, meaning 'armies,' when the Hebrew translations were made under the Hasmoneans, which is likely a direct translation of the Aramaic term. This god Sabaoth was considered at the time, to be the same god as the Phrygian god Sabazios, who the Greeks also considered a local variant of Dionysus. The fact that Dionysus was the Greek name of Sabaoth and Sabazios was recorded by the many Classical Era scholars, including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Lydus, Cornelius Labeo, and Plutarch.

The final version of the Septuagint was published in 132 BC, which included the Wisdom of Solomon, a book of wisdom credited to King Solomon, circa 950 BC. This book was never copied by the Masoretes, and no fragments of it have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, indicating it was not used much in Judea, if at all. A Syriac version of it is included in the Peshitta, the Syrian Orthodox Bible, which the Syrian Orthodox Church has always claimed was transcribed from the Aramaic text that the Jews translated into Hebrew, however, most modern scholars believe the Peshitta was a Syriac translation of the Septuagint. As a result, Wisdom of Solomon is a text that cannot be proven to have existed earlier than 132 BC, when it appeared in the Septuagint, and some scholars have concluded it was written in Greek at the Library of Alexandria. Wherever it was written, it is a very un-Jewish Israelite text, which contradicts, and occasionally even attacks the Torah. These contradictions are often interpreted as indicators that the writer was not particularly knowledgeable regarding the Torah, suggesting a Hellenized Jew, and therefore, it is generally assumed the book was written shortly before its inclusion in the Septuagint. All of these assumptions are, of course, based on the underlying assumption that Judaism was already standardized before the Greek Era. The books of Maccabees tell a very story. Given the complex religious history of the Second Temple Era, and the fact that none of the Israelites in Elephantine appear to have even heard of Moses in the 5th century BC, the Wisdom of Solomon does not seem out of place or anachronistic at all, and dismissing it based on contradictions with the Torah seems completely invalid. The Wisdom of Solomon itself appears to have been redacted before the Greek translation, as the first half is about the spirit of wisdom, Sophia in Greek, who is credited with actually doing most of what God was credited with doing in the Torah, however, this changes abruptly to crediting the Lord in chapter 11, and Sophia disappears entirely from the rest of the book. Chapter 11 was also the beginning of what scholars call the 'history' section of the book, which generally retold the history found in the Torah up until the exodus from Egypt, however, with some differences. One significant difference was the identification of the Lord as the Sun in chapter 16.

The Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira was likely the last book added to the Septuagint, in 132 BC, after Joshua ben Sira's grandson translated it in Alexandria. The book is known by several names, including Sirach, Wisdom of Sirach, Wisdom of Jesus Sirach, ben Sira, Ecclesiasticus, and the Book of the All-Virtuous Wisdom of Yeshua ben Sira. This diversity of names is based on the fact that the Masorites did not copy the text, however, an Aramaic copy and some fragments of the ancient Hebrew version have survived. As the Masorites did not copy the Wisdom of Solomon, it was ultimately dropped from most Protestant bibles, however, remains part of the Catholic, Orthodox, and Tewahedo Bibles. Hebrew and Aramaic fragments of the Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira were in circulation during the Herodian Dynasty, and fragments have survived among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the 2QSir, 11QPsa, and MasSir scrolls, however, the fragments may not have been part of a book called the Wisdom of Joshua Ben Sira. The 2QSir and MasSir scrolls are so damaged that they are barely recognizable as being excerpts from Joshua ben Sira, and the 11QPsa scroll, while being one of the best-preserved scrolls found in the Qumran caves, includes random psalms and proverbs from multiple sources, including excerpts from Joshua ben Sira. As the Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira was itself a collection of proverbs that Joshua had collected, it is possible that these scrolls may have simply drawn on the same sources. Some elements of the hedonistic version of Judaism remain in the Wisdom of Joshua ben Sira, including the reference to Iaw reacquiring Israel as his portion when the Highest God divided the nations of humanity between the princes. This is a reference to the 70 or 72 Elohim who were placed over the 70 or 72 nations of humans, in the early Second Temple era hedonistic form of Judaism. This was first mentioned in the Song of Moses, in Deuteronomy chapter 32, and then again in the Talmud which mentions the story of Dobiel, the 'prince of Persia' who was once the proxy for Gabriel in heaven for 21 days after Gabriel angered God by allowing the Jews to leave Babylon, when God wanted the Babylonians to kill them. While be was Gabriel's proxy Dobiel allowed the Persians to conquer the known world, which was the explanation of the sudden rise of the Persian Empire in the early Second Temple era. Dobiel was again referred to as the 'Prince of Persia' in the Revelation of Metatron, which listed Samael as the 'Prince of Rome.'

Psalms of Solomon was once in the Codex Alexandrinus' appendix, however, that section was ripped out at some point, and only the title survives. So far only eleven copies of the Psalms of Solomon have been found in ancient Septuagint manuscripts, all dating to between the 11th and 15th centuries, however, scholars generally assume the translation found in the Peshitta was made from a copy of the Septuagint sometime between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD, and that it was in early-Christian era copies of the Septuagint, as there are several references to it found in early Christian writing. It is universally agreed that the Psalms of Solomon is a pre-Christian work, as early Christian writers referred to it even though it is clearly not about the life of Jesus as described in the gospels. The question of when it was written remains largely debatable, and currently, the consensus is that it was likely written sometime between 63 and 1 BC, and that some chapters may be older, composed in the 2nd century BC. The idea that the bulk of the Psalms were written after 63 BC, hinges on the interpretation of the dragon in chapter 2 as the Roman General Pompey, who sacked Jerusalem in 63 BC. Overall, the sack of Jerusalem by Pompey does fit the dragon story, as he did enter at the invitation of the princes, and he did occupy the city and tear down its fortifications, and then drag of many Jews as slaves, however, he was not the only one to do this. In 609 BC, Pharaoh Necho II did the same thing. The psalm describes the dragon as wanting to rule both the land and the sea, which might have also been accurate for Pompey, however, by the 1st century, BC naval battles were common, and hardly worth mentioning, especially in regards to Pompey's battles in Syria and Judea, where no ships were used. However, in Necho's time, naval warfare was new, and he was the first Egyptian king to establish a national navy, hiring Greeks to sail his ships, as Egyptians were superstitious about sailing on open waters. Regardless of when it was composed, it is likely one of the only pre-Christian Nazarene text to make it into any version of the Christian Bible, although it was ultimately dropped in the Middle Ages. It appears to have never been used by any Jewish sect, unless one counts the ancient Nazarenes as Jewish. The author of the Psalms of Solomon's intent is to place a descendant of David on the throne of Judea, foreshadowing the events on the first few decades AD surrounding John, Jesus, James, and Jude.

In the mid-3rd century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Hebrew scriptures for the Library of Alexandria. The creation of the Septuagint resulted from this order. It is generally accepted that there were several versions of the ancient Hebrew and Samaritan scriptures before the translation of the Septuagint. The Book of Odes is not believed to have been added until the 3rd century AD, and is the only specifically Christian book to be added to the Septuagint. It includes the older Prayer of Manasseh, which was found in some copies of the Septuagint, but not all. The Prayer of Manasseh is believed to have been added in the 2nd century BC, which is why it is not found in all copies. The current scholarly view is that it was likely written in Greek, and is not the original Prayer of Manasseh mentioned in the Septuagint's 2nd Paraleipomenon. Fragments of a different Prayer of Manasseh have been discovered among the dead sea scrolls, written in Hebrew, which could be the original, however, it is more likely that the original would have been written in Canaanite (Samaritan, Paleo-Hebrew) than Hebrew, and therefore it is still not clear which, if either, is the original Prayer of Manasseh. Most of the other songs and prayers in the Book of Odes are copied from other books found in the Septuagint, although not exactly word for word. These songs and prayers include works attributed to Moses, Hannah the mother of Samuel, King Hezekiah, the prophets Habakkuk, Isaiah, Jonah, Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. Additionally, the Odes includes specifically Christian prayers copied from either the Gospel of Luke, by Zechariah the father of John the Baptist, Simeon, and in some manuscripts Mary the God-Bearer.

The book of Ecclesiastes is generally attributed to King Solomon, however, he is not mentioned anywhere by name. Within the book the author is mentioned as being someone called the ecclsiastou in Greek, meaning approximately female cleric, and qhelet in Hebrew, possibly meaning "female member of the community." The Masoretic term probably originated in the Egyptian term q nt, meaning "high queen," suggesting the author was Solomons first wife. If q nt were transliterated directly into Canaanite in the era of Solomon, it would have been qhnt, which could have been rendered as qhlt by mistransliterating an L for an N. The current view of the academic community is to regard the text as a Persian or Greek era text, something that dates to long after the time of Solomon. There is no consensus among academics as to whether it is a Persian or Greek era text, and views are largely biased by the researchers view of the text, and whether it looks like it is more influenced by Plato or Zoroastrianism to that specific researcher. In all fairness, the texts constant references to the dichotomy of light and darkness is similar to some of Platos work, as well as the central conflict within Zoroastrianism of light versus darkness, however, the constant mentioning of everything under the Sun could equally point to an Egyptian influence of Amen-Ra worshipers, Atum devotees, or even Atenists. Moreover, the philosophical view of the texts, in which the toil of this life is seen as insignificant in comparison to the life in heaven, is far more in tune with Egyptian New-Kingdom era philosophy than Greek or Persian philosophy, indicating that the text may well date back to the time of Solomon. As most major Christians denominations now agree that the Proverbs of Solomon include proverbs copied from the ancient Egyptian text called the Wisdom of Amenemope (or Instructions of Amenemope), there is a clear precedent for New-Kingdom era Egyptian wisdom literature influencing the works traditionally associated with King Solomon, and therefore, there is no reason to rule outEcclesiastes as dating back to circa 950 BC. As archaeologists have yet to find evidence that King Solomon existed, he is generally considered to be a fictional character by historians, however, the fact that the Book of Proverbs attributed to him includes quotes from an ancient Egyptian source does lend some creditably to his being a historical person.

The Psalms are a complex collection of hymns and prayers likely composed over many centuries, and by various authors. The earliest psalms are attributed to King David or are written for King David, including the first 40, which are likely the original group of psalms. Many other psalms are attributed to, or written for Asaph, Solomon, Ethan, Moses, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zachariah, the sons of Korah, or the sons of Jehonadab. Some of the psalms have internal historical references that indicate the likely time-frame they were written in. King David is generally believed to have lived around 1000 BC by those who accept him as a historical figure, and Asaph, Solomon, and Ethan all lived around the same time, so those who accept the psalms as having been written by authors that they are attributed to, would generally place the origin of most of the texts to around 1000 BC. The life of Moses has been dated to anywhere between the 16ᵗʰ and 13ᵗʰ centuries BC, and the original sons of Korah lived at the same time, however, the sons of Korah were also the priests in Solomon's Temple before they were replaced by the Levites. Jehonadab lived during the reign of the Israelite King Jehu, who lived circa 800 BC, while Jeremiah's life is dated to circa 600 BC, and the lives of Haggai and Zachariah are dated to circa 500 BC. The earliest references to the Septuagint's Lord in the Psalms, treat the Lord as the Sun or refer to the Lord as living in the Sun. In the later psalms, the sun was a completely separate object from the Lord, which is consistent with the changing religion of the region recorded in both the Israelite and Judahite books of the Kingdoms and the archaeological record. 4ᵗʰ Kingdoms (Masoretic Kings) describes King Josiah's reforms in circa 625 BC. Shemesh was the Canaanite god of the sun, who was essentially the same as the Greek Helios before Josiah's reforms. Like Helios, Shemesh rode on a chariot pulled by four flying horses. The four horses are a reference to what are commonly called sundogs today, the refracted light that appears 22° to the left and right of the Sun, and in rare cases again at 44° when there are ice crystals in the atmosphere. The Psalms include many references to the Lord shining down from the sky, and the name of the Lord enduring as long as the sun. Psalms 18 claims that the Lord lives in the sun, suggesting he was something other than the sun, even in the early Psalms.

4th Maccabees is a philosophical interpretation of 2nd Maccabees. It was added to the Septuagint in the 1st-century AD, however, it could have been written anywhere between 140 BC and 100 AD. This text includes more details regarding the torture of the Israelite youths from 2nd Maccabees, which may have come from Jason of Cyrene's original five-volume version of Maccabees. The author of 4th Maccabees accepts the flying horsemen of 2nd Maccabees as sky messengers, which implies the Phrygian imagery was widely accepted by Jews at the time and supports the Greek and Roman records that indicate the Phrygians and Hebrews worshiped the same god. Unlike 2nd and 3rd Maccabees, 4th Maccabees does not mention the god Dionysus/Sabaoth, indicating that the book was written in Hasmonean Dynasty or later. 4th Maccabees also does not have any Aramaic loanwords, indicating it was almost certainly written in Greek. Four books of Maccabees were ultimately added to the Septuagint, three in the 1st century BC, and the 4th as an appendix in the 1st century AD. No trace of these books has been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, and they are generally thought to have been written in Greek. 1st and 2nd Maccabees do include several Aramaic loanwords that support an Aramaic source text. The Syriac Bibles also include a 5th Maccabees, which is a translation of book 6 of Josephus' The Judean War. The Judean War is considered extended canon in the Ethiopic Bibles, however, the Ethiopic Bibles also include three books of Maccabees, which are not based on the Greek books, or Josephus. An Arabic book of Maccabees also exists, which is often mislabeled as 5th Maccabees in English language literature, because it was initially misidentified as being the same book as Syriac 5th Maccabees. The Arabic book is a translation of a Palestinian Aramaic book from circa 525 AD, which itself appears to be based on the Hebrew book of Maccabees, which surfaced much later. The Hebrew version of Maccabees was collected with other Hebrew language manuscripts from various eras in a Yiddish compilation in the 1300s. The Hebrew translation of Maccabees was likely composed in Iberia earlier than 500 AD and was probably based on an Aramaic text, along with an Iberian tale about Hannibal. The Aramaic text that was used is closely related to the text found in the Josippon, which is believed to have been composed in southern Italy in the 900s. The Josippon claims to be a copy of the book of Joseph ben Gurion (יוסף בן גוריון), one of the leaders of the Judean Revolt of 66 AD. Joseph died in 68 AD, and Josephus, who survived the war, did not report that Joseph was a writer, however, it stands to reason his faction must have had some form of propaganda, likely based on the Maccabean Revolt. These Josippon-related versions of Maccabees are of very little historic value, as they are replete with historical errors. Their original function appears to have been to serve as inspiration rather than to educate.

There are two versions of the Book of Esther the various copies of the Septuagint, however, neither originated at the Library of Alexandria. The common version of Esther is found in almost all copies, while the rare version is only found in four know manuscripts, numbered as 19, 93, 108, and 319. This version follows the rare version, also known as the Alpha version, using the oldest surviving copy as a source text, the Septuagint manuscript 319, while also comparing the other surviving manuscripts: 19, 93, and 108 The Alpha Texts version only survives in a few copies of the Septuagint, and based on its dialect, it was translated somewhere in the Seleucid Empire. The Alpha version is probably the oldest of the four translations, as it includes several unique elements that appear to have disappeared in later translations. One of these unique elements is the use of the month name Adar-Nisan, which is then clarified in a scribal note as being Dystros-Xandicos. Dystros-Xandicos was not a month, but two months on the modified Macedonian calendar used by the Seleucid Empire. As the story is set in the Persian Empire, the calendar in use was either the Persian calendar, or the Babylonian calendar. The names are the same as the Hebrew calendar, which are themselves based on the Babylonian Calendar, suggesting that this was the calendar the author used.

The Book of Proverbs is generally attributed to King Solomon, who is explicitly referred to as the author of some of the proverbs. A number proverbs are known to have been copied from older collections of proverbs, most notably the Instruction of Amenem

The Book of Tobit is generally viewed as fiction by most scholars for a variety of reasons. One major reason it is viewed as fiction is the presence of Tobit's cousin Ahikar, who is the protagonist of the Words of Ahikar, a book set in the same era, which is also considered fiction. It is quite clear from the text of Tobit, that it is the same Ahikar, and not just someone with the name, as Ahikar's betrayal by his nephew is mentioned, which is part of the early section of Ahikar. Nevertheless, both books, Tobit and Ahikar, survive in various forms, meaning that they were edited multiple times before the versions that survive to the present were transcribed. The surviving copies of the Septuagint include two versions of the Book of Tobit, the more common form, found in the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Alexandrinus, and most other surviving copies of the Septuagint, and the less common version found in the Codex Sinaiticus. Additionally, fragments of Tobit found among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri don't match either the Vaticanus or Sinaiticus version of Tobit. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are a collection of ancient texts found in southern Egypt dating to the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine eras of Egyptian history, approximately 300 BC to 640 AD. Among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, two fragments of Tobit have been found, Papyrus 1594, dated to circa 275 AD, and Papyrus 1076, dated to circa 550 AD. Unfortunately, these fragments are extremely short, with only a few lines surviving from chapters 12 and 2 respectively. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri fragments of Tobit are in Greek but do not match surviving versions found in the Septuagint codices, meaning there were no less than three Greek versions of Tobit in circulation by 350 AD, when the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are dated to. While the Greek translations must have originated in an Aramaic text, it does not survive to the present. Nor have any Hebrew translations been found, and it is possible it was not translated into Hebrew, as the text is contrary to the theology of Simon the Zealot, who originally ordered the creation of the Hebrew translations of the ancient Israelite scriptures. The Peshitta does include a version of Tobit that may have been translated directly from the Aramaic source, however, western scholarship leans towards it having been translated from the Septuagint. The differences between the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus versions of Tobit are too extensive to treat the books as the same book, however, their story is essentially the same. The two books must have had a common source, however, the Sinaiticus is 23% longer than the Vaticanus, and appears to be an older version of Tobit. One of the reasons that the Book of Tobit is interpreted as fiction, is the existence of historical errors and anachronisms found in the Vaticanus version, which includes the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar and the Persian king Ahasuerus jointly destroying Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh was sacked by Babylonian King Nabopolassar in 612 BC, along with Median and Persian allies, led by the Median King Cyaxares, who then integrated the city into his Median Empire. Nabopolassar's son Nebuchadnezzar, who assumed the throne in 605 BC, finally conquered the remnants of the Assyrian forces in Syria at the Battle of Carchemish that same year, however, he did not attack or destroy Nineveh. Meanwhile, the name Ahasuerus (Ασυηρος) was the Aramaic name of Xerxes, the Persian king who ruled between 486 and 465 BC.

2nd Maccabees claims to be an abridged version of Jason of Cyrene's now lost five-volume version of Maccabees. Jason's books of the Maccabees were likely composed earlier than 1st Maccabees, as the story ends decades earlier, and contains many references to Sabaoth in the form of Dionysus which are missing from the 1st Maccabees. While 1st Maccabees is a very secular version of the events that lead to the creation of the Hasmonean kingdom, and was, therefore, almost certainly composed by a Sadducee, 2nd Maccabees claims that Judas the Hammer, the protagonist of both 1st and 2nd Maccabees was a Hasidean, suggesting that either Jason of Cyrene, or whoever abridged his work, was a Hasidean. 1st Maccabees mentioned the Hasideans joining Judas' forces, but did not claim he was one. The Hasideans were one of two Judean sects that were mentioned in the various books of the Maccabees whose relationship to other sects is unclear. Some scholars have theorized that they may be the precursors to the Pharisees. 2nd Maccabees appear to be an anti-Phrygian work, although it is not clear if this was added by the author, or found in Jason's earlier work. The book is the only clear reference to the origin of Sabaoth within the Judean sects, as the god appears in the book, under his Greek name Dionysus, while Philippon the Phrygian is in charge of the Temple in Jerusalem. References to the Judean god Sabaoth appear at this point in the Greek language literature, either transliterated directly in the form of Sabaoth or translated into Greek as Dionysus. While there is a similar word in the ancient Israelite scriptures, it as translated as ṣbʾwt, meaning 'armies,' when the Hebrew translations were made under the Hasmoneans, which is likely a direct translation of the Aramaic term. This god Sabaoth was considered at the time, to be the same god as the Phrygian god Sabazios, who the Greeks also considered a local variant of Dionysus. The fact that Dionysus was the Greek name of Sabaoth and Sabazios was recorded by the many Classical Era scholars, including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Lydus, Cornelius Labeo, and Plutarch.

The oldest surviving physical copy of Esther is found in the Codex Vaticanus, which dates to circa 350 AD. The version of Ether in the Codex Vaticanus is generally accepted as being the original version added to the Septuagint sometime in the 2nd century BC, however, it claims to have not been translated in Alexandria, like the rest of the Septuagint. There are two other early copies of the common version of Esther found in the Codex Vaticanus, the copy in the Codex Sinaiticus from circa 350 AD, Codex Alexandrinus from circa 450 AD. The term 'king of the gods' is found in chapter 4 of the Vaticanus version of Esther, however, does not make sense in the theology that developed in later Judaism, in which there was only one God, indicating the early date of the original composition. The title 'king of the gods' was used by Esther in the book, who use the title to refer to the god of the Israelite. While Esther was described as being the Queen (or royal consort) in the texts, she was also described as being a devote worshiped of the Israelite god, and 'King of the gods' was not a Zoroastrian title of Ahura Mazda either, as Zoroastrianism was also monotheistic, meaning that this title has to be traced back to the Israelite religion.

The version of Job found in the Septuagint, Masoretic text, and Peshitta, all appear to be copies of a standardized version of the Book of Job that was circulating in Judea under Greek rule, and during the Hasmonean and Herodian dynasties. Fragments of it have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, written in Phoenician, Hebrew, and Aramaic, dated to between 330 BC and 44 AD. The Phoenician texts appear to be the oldest, generally dated to between 330 and 140 BC, while the Hebrew and Aramaic fragments date to later times, generally dated to between 140 BC and 44 AD. Unlike most of the books in the Septuagint, the Septuagint's translation of Job appears to have been made from a Phoenician version of Job, as it uses transliterations of words based on their Canaanite spelling instead of their Aramaic spelling.Nevertheless, the surviving Hebrew translation of Job includes many Aramaic loanwords, which indicates the Phoenician script version of Job was translated from an Aramaic text. One of the more obvious pieces of evidence of the Aramaic source text is the name of Elihu, whose name is Aramaic for 'God is Yahủ,' the Aramaic form of Yahweh. Elihu is considered by some scholars to be the author of the Book of Job, however, others believe that his speech in chapters 32 through 37 was added later. He is notable in that he was not mentioned at all previously in this book, and disappears after the Lord starts speaking to the other three kings in chapter 38. In the Book of Job, Elihu takes the contrary view to the three kings that are berating Job, and ultimately the Lord punishes them. This is the exact opposite outcome from the Testament of Job, where Elihu is the one berating Job, and punished by the Lord. The Testament of Job contains the Song of Eliphaz, which appears to have been composed before 1800 BC, and claims to have been written by Nahor, the brother of Abraham, and father of Elihu, which seems to be an attempt by the author of the Testament of Job to give it priority over the Book of Job. If Elihu produced the redacted version of Job, adding himself and his opinion to the story, then it was likely when the book was translated into Aramaic.The Aramaic translation of Job was likely produced sometime between 747 and 656 BC, during the Nubian 25th Dynasty of Egypt, as Egypt is not mentioned, however, Kush is. At the time, the Empire of Kush, based in modern Sudan, ruled Egypt, and so the land of Egypt would have been included in any reference to Kush. During this era, the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered the Kingdom of Samaria in 720 BC, and relocated the Israelite population. The Assyrians then attacked the Kingdom of Judah and laid siege to Jerusalem in 701 BC, but the Kushites attacked the Assyrians in support of Judah, and the Assyrians withdrew. This Assyrian invasion of Judah was during the reign of King Hezekiah, who initiated the first major overhaul of the religion of Judah, destroying the statue of Ba'al that Solomon had placed in the Temple in Jerusalem, along with Moses' bronze serpent statue, in favor of promoting the god Yhủh. Hezekiah was one of the better-documented kings of Judah, partly because Judah was pulled into the imperial intrigue of the Neo-Assyrian and Kushite Empires, and partly because he was a prolific builder. The Siloam Tunnel and part of the Broad Wall he built in Jerusalem still exist. Sennacherib's Prism, a document discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, and dating back to the siege of Jerusalem confirms the siege from the Assyrian perspective, and names Hezekiah as the king of Judah.

The Song of Songs appears to be love poetry, exchanged between Solomon and one of his wives, however, is not clear who exactly the wife was. The wife describes herself as black, suggesting a Kushite woman. She also refers to herself as a Shulammitess, and makes clear she was not from Jerusalem. The town of Shunaam was located near the Jezreel Valley north of Mount Gilboa, in the tribal lands of Issachar at the time. It was also listed as one of the towns conquered by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III circa 1450 BC, and then again by Pharaoh Shoshenk I circa 925 BC, meaning there was a significant town was there for over 500 years. It was the hometown of King Davids last concubine, the 12-year-old Abishag, who Adonijah attempted to marry after Davids death, which suggests the author was Abishag the Shulamite. If this song was the work of Abishag, it means that it would date to the time of Solomon, and imply she was one of Solomons wives or concubines. The geography of the Song of Songs is curious, as it seems focused on northern Israel and southern Lebanon, not Judea. Jerusalem is mentioned repeatedly but as part of the phrase daughters of Jerusalem, which is a group the author clearly does not see herself as being a part of. This suggests that she was living in the north, possibly in the palace Solomon built in the mountains of Lebanon, and saw the daughters of Jerusalem as her rivals for his affection.

The Book of Tobit appears to be from an older sect of Judaism, likely the one led by the 'false priest' Tobiah, who was expelled from the temple by Ezra when his genealogy could not be proven in 2nd Ezra. 2nd Ezra was the version of Ezra used by the Pharisee sect which emerged under the Hasmonean Dynasty, while Tobit, along with Enoch, Jubilees, and Job appears to have primarily been used by the Essenes sects. The Book of Tobit is generally viewed as fiction by most scholars for a variety of reasons. One major reason it is viewed as fiction is the presence of Tobit's cousin Ahikar, in both versions of the book, who is the protagonist of the Words of Ahikar, a book set in the same era, which is also considered fiction. It is quite clear from the text of Tobit, that it is the same Ahikar, and not just someone with the same name, as Ahikar's betrayal by his nephew is mentioned, which is part of the early section of Ahikar. Nevertheless, both books, Tobit and Ahikar survive in various forms, meaning that they were edited multiple times before the versions that survive to the present were transcribed. The surviving copies of the Septuagint include two versions of the Book of Tobit, the more common form, found in the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Alexandrinus, and most other surviving copies of the Septuagint, and the less common version found in the Codex Sinaiticus. The differences between the Vaticanus and Sinaiticus versions of Tobit are too extensive to treat the books as the same book, however, their story is essentially the same. The two books must have had a common source, however, the Sinaiticus's version is over 20% longer than the Vaticanus's version, and appears to be an older version of Tobit. One of the reasons that the Book of Tobit is interpreted as fiction, is the existence of historical errors and anachronisms found in the Vaticanus version, which includes the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar and the Persian king Ahasuerus jointly destroying Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh was sacked by Babylonian King Nabopolassar in 612 BC, along with Median and Persian allies, led by the Median King Cyaxares, who then integrated the city into his Median Empire. Nabopolassar's son Nebuchadnezzar, who assumed the throne in 605 BC, finally conquered the remnants of the Assyrian forces in Syria at the Battle of Carchemish that same year, however, he did not attack or destroy Nineveh. Meanwhile, the name Ahasuerus was the Aramaic name of Xerxes, the Persian king who ruled between 486 and 465 BC.

In the mid 3rd century BC, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt ordered a translation of the ancient Israelite scriptures for the Library of Alexandria, which resulted in the creation of the Septuagint. The original version, published circa 250 BC, only included the Torah, or in Greek terms, the Pentateuch. The Torah is composed of the five books traditionally credited to Moses, circa 1500 BC: Cosmic Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The first of these five books was known as Cosmic Genesis in Greek, however, known as Bereshít in Hebrew, which translates as approximately 'In the beginning' the first few words of the book. The Book of Cosmic Genesis begins by recounting a fusion of ancient Akkadian and Middle Egyptian creation mythology, before telling the stories of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the ancestors of the Israelites. Their stories also include smatterings of Old and Middle Egyptian religious iconography, such as Jacob seeing the ladder up to the sky, which in Egyptian mythology was associated with Osiris since the Old Kingdom era. The book culminates with the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob, all moving to Egypt during a famine in Canaan. Based on the chronology in the Septuagint, his famine would have been during the collapse of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, which led to a group of Canaanites seizing control of Egypt, as described a the end of Cosmic Genesis.